Title: Module 1: Introduction to Wildlife Forensic Science

Welcome to Module 1 of the Wildlife Forensic Science course.

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Welcome

[Image: Glass jars filled with evidence and an A4 evidence description page on a table]

Welcome to Module 1: Introduction to Wildlife Forensic Science

The module enables the participants to achieve the following objectives:

- Explain what forensic science is and how it is applied to wildlife law enforcement.
- Describe how wildlife forensic science is standardized at an international level.
- List the forensic techniques used for identification in wildlife evidence.

Content for this resource was developed by TRACE Wildlife Forensics Network. Funding for the digitization of this content was provided through the USAID Combatting Wildlife Crime in Southern Africa Activity (VukaNow) in South Africa Contract No. 72067418C00005

The contents are the sole responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID’s VukaNow Activity, USAID, or the United States Government.

Introduction

The investigation of crime against wildlife may raise questions that can be addressed through a range of forensic analytical approaches, from mainstream applications, such as human DNA profiling and ballistics, to specialist applications such as species identification.

The key elements to understand as we begin are:

- Wildlife law enforcement authorities are often required to identify non-human biological evidence to support a prosecution.
- The development and application of forensic science requires method validation, quality assurance and evidence security, which distinguishes forensic analysis from research.
- Forensic analysis of wildlife evidence may use a range of different laboratory techniques, but the overall approaches to evidence security and quality assurance standards are identical.

GLOSSARY

This glossary includes key terms relating to wildlife forensics.

Click each term to reveal its definition.

Glossary

Approach

A high-level description of the science being used – for example, DNA analysis.

Evidence security

A documented process for ensuring that evidence is kept demonstrably secure from crime scene to courtroom, through to subsequent storage or disposal.

Method

The protocol being followed, for example, to generate a DNA sequence.

Method validation

A procedure to verify that an analytical method is suitable for its intended purpose and can generate robust, reliable data.

Quality assurance (QA)

The management process that ensures that the delivery of a product or service, for example, a laboratory test, is quality controlled.

Quality management system (QMS)

A documentation system that describes all of the steps involved in the delivery of a quality assured service or product.

Technique

The specific kind of approach being used; for example, DNA sequencing.

Scientific test

What the scientist is actually attempting to do; for example, generating a DNA sequence to identify the species.

[Image: Decorative graphic of elephants in a grassland]

Let’s start by defining what we mean by “forensic science”.

[Image: Decorative graphic]

What Is Forensic Science?

TERMINOLOGY CLARIFICATION

It is very important for wildlife scientists, enforcers and the judiciary to understand the distinction between research and forensics. Looking specifically at terminology, “forensic” describes the end-use of the result data as well as the control processes surrounding a test. “Forensic” does not simply mean using a test to identify a sample and the term “forensic” should not be used to describe a technique/method.

In its strictest sense, the term “forensic” relates solely to the scientific analysis of evidence to inform legal proceedings and the development of tools specifically for that purpose. This sets a very high standard for the methods, data, and laboratory procedures employed in any forensic analysis.

TERM | DEFINITION | EXAMPLE OF CORRECT USAGE
Forensic | Adjective pertaining to the scientific analysis of evidence to inform legal proceedings. It may be used to describe, for example, the purpose of the analytical method, the way in which a method is performed, the scientists involved, or the subsequent reports. | “The analysis was conducted by a forensic scientist.”
Forensics | Commonly used abbreviation of “forensic science”. | “Forensics can be employed to help law enforcement officers identify animal products in trade.”
Forensic Science | An applied discipline concerned with the controlled use of analytical scientific methods to generate evidence in relation to legal proceedings. | “Their use of forensic science to gather evidence was helpful in winning the case.”
Forensic Analysis | Any type of scientific analysis where the purpose is to inform a legal prosecution and the analytical process is performed according to appropriate forensic standards. | “The officer requested forensic analysis of the evidence item to determine its species of origin.”
Wildlife Forensics | Broadly speaking, this is the application of forensic science to test any evidence item as part of an investigation into crimes against wildlife. More specifically, or more commonly, it is the application of forensic science to test non-human biological evidence. | “Many cases relating to rhino poaching have been successfully prosecuted in court with the help of wildlife forensics.”
Forensic Casework Analysis | Scientific tests performed as part of a specific investigation or “case”. | “The forensic casework analysis was done in the initial stages of the investigation.”

Any forensic analysis needs to follow these basic steps to aid an investigation and generate intelligence.

ACADEMIC RESEARCH VERSUS FORENSICS

While academic research and forensic science may use the same approaches, in terms of process, they look very different. To convert a laboratory test from a research method to a forensic test requires three important criteria to be met:

Click on the small arrows to work through the criteria.

[Image: Red Check mark]

Method validation: Each aspect of the analysis must be formally validated to demonstrate fitness-for-purpose. Validation studies must be documented and available for inspection and should, preferably, be published following peer-review.

[Image: Red Check mark]

The use of a validated method must be thoroughly documented with thorough Quality Assurance (QA), which is maintained by the laboratory. The QA ensures that all aspects of laboratory testing, result generation and reporting are quality controlled.

[Image: Illustrated padlock icon to the left of the text STEP 3]

The evidence used or generated by the forensic analysis must be kept secure at all times and security must be demonstrable through an unbroken chain of custody of the evidence.

For these reasons, research laboratories are usually not suitable facilities for performing forensic analysis, as they cannot easily meet these requirements. However, there are exceptions to this, and forensic casework should be judged on the processes used and documentation provided rather than the status or reputation of the laboratory conducting the work.

In addition to ensuring that a laboratory can generate forensic evidence using appropriate methods and processes, capacity for wildlife forensic science depends on the broader organizational framework surrounding its use.

Any wildlife forensic investigation extends from the point of evidence collection through to the presentation of analytical findings in court. In the simplest scenario, this will still involve common issues (described below):

When seeking to identify suitable facilities for forensic analysis, agencies involved in wildlife law enforcement need to consider the capacity of existing bodies to appropriately manage and test evidence as well as consider the development of capacity in this area. For example, protocols for evidence storage and transfer should be developed in consultation with enforcement agencies, prosecuting authorities and laboratories to ensure that the needs of each stakeholder are met.

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Next, we will explore activities involved in wildlife crime and efforts to combat it.

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Wildlife Crime

[Image: Photograph of a pangolin]

Wildlife crime begins with the illegal exploitation of wildlife through various activities.

Wildlife crime begins with the illegal exploitation of wildlife through various activities such as:

- The capture of live animals for the pet trade;
- The illegal killing of protected species for parts and products;
- The illegal harvest or illegal take where regulations governing legal trade are violated, such as timber and fisheries industries; and
- Animal persecution — often associated with the pet trade.

Once someone obtains the illicit items, the next step is illegal trade at local, national or international scales, resulting in retail activities and sales to end-users for consumption or ownership of wildlife products.

Efforts to combat the illegal wildlife trade (IWT) are multifaceted and include the reduction of incentives to supply wildlife into the trade and reduction of consumer demand at the other end of the supply chain. Law enforcement typically focuses on the illegal killing and trade that occurs in between.

Law enforcement may seek to prosecute offenses under national wildlife legislation, such as national wildlife protection acts, or national regulations enacted to meet obligations under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). Alternatively, there may be a range of relevant ancillary legislation relating to, for example, firearms offenses, financial crimes, food standards, etc.

[Image: Decorative image]

Next, we’ll look at law enforcement challenges in wildlife crime.

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Law Enforcement Challenges in Wildlife Crime

Alongside the challenges faced in any type of criminal investigation, an authority’s ability to accurately identify the biological products in trade, and therefore establish the specific offense, further limits the identification, arrest, and conviction of offenders.

[Image: Close up of a pangolin, Close up of abalone, Close up of elephant tusks, Close up of cycad leaves]

INVESTIGATIVE QUESTIONS

In the case of CITES implementation and wildlife law enforcement, the investigative questions to address in relation to the identification of animals and plants, or their parts and derivatives, can generally be categorized into four groups, concerning:

Click on the arrows to learn more.

Category 1

[Image: Infographic showing Species identification or “What is it?”]

Category 2

[Image: Infographic showing Geographic origin or “Where is it from”]

Category 3

[Image: Infographic showing Parentage Verification or “Is it captive bred?”]

Category 4

[Image: Infographic showing Individual Identification/Sample Matching or “Which Animal is it From?”]

The types of wildlife identification questions that are relevant may vary depending on the focus of an investigation, for example, local prosecutions versus investigations of organized international trade.

The point to prove in a local prosecution might be to establish the legality of a traded product by determining what species it is from. At a broader scale, understanding where wildlife products originate (geographic origin) may be critical to progressing an investigation into international illegal wildlife trade networks.

Here are more examples of how points to prove in wildlife identification may change depending on the focus of the investigation.

[Image: Infographic showing law enforcement challenges]

Next, we’ll look at the topic of evidence in wildlife crime.

Evidence in Wildlife Crime

[Image: Photograph of lion tracks]

WILDLIFE EVIDENCE TYPES

Unlike human forensics, which considers only a single species, a limited range of evidence types, and investigative questions, wildlife forensics has the potential to have an extremely broad scope. Types of evidence may include animal and plant tissues, ranging from fresh samples taken from living organisms through to analysis of highly processed parts and products, such as cooked foods, medicines, or wood products.

Here is a full list of wildlife sample types that can be used as evidence.

[Image: Infographic showing wildlife sample types]

Analysing these different sample types can be extremely challenging. For example, processed products may have lost all of their normal physical characteristics used for identification and the DNA recovered from such items may be severely degraded. This means that each case is unique, and the type and condition of the evidence will strongly influence the success of forensic analysis (that is, the ability to obtain a conclusive test result).

EVIDENCE MANAGEMENT — FROM CRIME SCENE TO COURTROOM

As with any type of forensic investigation, evidence in a wildlife crime investigation must be closely managed from crime scene to courtroom. The admissibility of evidence relies on establishing and operating robust systems for evidence collection, storage, and transfer throughout the chain of custody. Importantly, this includes the activities of the forensic scientists and laboratory managers.

The steps involved in evidence management include:

[Image: Infographic showing evidence management]

WILDLIFE FORENSIC STANDARDS

Determining whether wildlife forensic evidence meets sufficient standards for admissibility to court requires knowledge of best practice. A range of standards exist for different elements of forensic science. Certain standards, such as ISO17025, are generic laboratory testing standards for which laboratories can be formally accredited; however, implementing ISO17025 is expensive and impractical for many small-scale laboratories, typical of most wildlife forensic facilities.

The Society for Wildlife Forensic Sciences developed a series of standards and guidelines in the form of a simplified set of instructions describing how wildlife forensic analysis should be performed to the minimum level required to generate evidence for legal proceedings. These standards and guidelines are freely available and form the basis for wildlife forensic capacity-building work in Africa and around the world.

[Image: Note image]

[Image: Decorative image]

Next, we’ll explore wildlife forensic analysis techniques.

[Image: Decorative image]

Wildlife Forensic Analysis Techniques

The most common investigative need is species identification, primarily in cases where investigators do not know which organism a sample comes from.

Species are usually identified though visual analysis of a sample’s physical characteristics (known as visual identification) or analysis of DNA recovered from the sample.

Questions relating to geographic origin or individual sample matching are usually only possible with DNA analysis.

TECHNIQUES FOR IDENTIFICATION

Below is a list of the techniques available for identification in wildlife crimes, with DNA analysis and visual identification being the most popular.

Click on the headings to learn more about each technique.

Techniques for Identification

DNA analysis

Genetic analysis of the DNA recovered from an evidence item. The technique can be used to identify or exclude the species, geographic origin, parentage, or individual from which the evidence was obtained.

Visual identification

Comparative analysis of the characteristics of an evidence item, such as physical appearance, shape, color, etc., to help identify the evidence to species, or a higher taxonomic level.

Stable isotope analysis

Chemical analysis of the relative proportions of elemental isotopes within an evidence item, used to map against the isotope ratios present in the environment where the animal or plant lived. The technique can be used to help identify the geographic origin of the evidence.

Radio isotope analysis

Chemical analysis of the relative proportions of elemental radioisotopes within an evidence item, used to match against the atmospheric radioisotope ratios present in the environment where the animal or plant lived at a historic time point. The technique can be used to help determine the age of the evidence item.

Chemical profiling

A generic term describing a suite of mass spectrometry techniques that may be used to identify the molecular composition of an evidence item. Comparative analysis of mass spectra may enable the species or geographic origin of the evidence to be determined.

[Image: Note block]

The international scientific community is continually working to develop other analytical techniques to identify wildlife. These include chemical profiling for identifying timber or radiocarbon dating for ageing ivory.

[Image: Photographs of ivory and timber]

However, many cutting-edge techniques are either unavailable in the countries where wildlife crime is most prevalent, or the technique has not been sufficiently validated to be confidently used in forensic casework analysis. Until the resources and expertise required for these cutting-edge techniques are more widely available, law enforcement and prosecutors are encouraged to make the most of analytical methods such as visual identification and DNA analysis.

IDENTIFICATION TECHNIQUES IN PRACTICE

Now that we’ve listed the different techniques for identification, let’s see how techniques work in practice.

[Image: Case study 1 graphic]

The following evidence is found in relation to a suspected poaching incident for the bushmeat trade.

[Image: Graphic showing blood stains on a rag and smoked meat at a market]

In this case, we need to answer the following questions:

- Has a crime been committed?
- What species is it?
- What is the relevant offense?

SPECIES IDENTIFICATION

Species Identification

Q: There are two options for species identification listed below. Select the one that you think will work best in this scenario.
- DNA analysis (correct) (Correct! This technique could be used for definitive identification. In this case, wildlife forensic methods for species identification should be admissible in court, but probably only if DNA analysis is used. Blood stains cannot be identified as human, domestic or wild meat without DNA analysis. The smoked meat might be identifiable to species by a taxonomic expert, but probably not by a ranger. DNA analysis is strongly recommended here.)
- Visual identification (Incorrect! Although this technique could be used, the results will not be certain. In this case, wildlife forensic methods for species identification should be admissible in court, but probably only if DNA analysis is used. Blood stains cannot be identified as human, domestic or wild meat without DNA analysis. The smoked meat might be identifiable to species by a taxonomic expert, but probably not by a ranger. DNA analysis is strongly recommended here.)

[Image: Case study 2 graphic]

The following items were seized by customs officials during a vehicle inspection at a border crossing:

[Image: Graphic showing a pangolin being traffic and ivory]

In this case, we need to answer the following questions:

- What species is it?
- Where did it come from? (Geographic origin)

SPECIES IDENTIFICATION AND GEOGRAPHIC ORIGIN ASSIGNMENT

Species Identification

Q: Which technique do you think will be most appropriate for species identification?
- Visual identification (correct) (Correct! This depends on the availability of expertise in the country and it's also important to note that the results should be suitable for proving identity in court. This being said, in this example, it is likely that an officer who has appropriate identification training could identify the ivory as originating from an elephant and that the pangolin is a pangolin, but possibly not which species of pangolin. So visual identification might be sufficient for species identification, with DNA analysis being a suitable alternative.)
- DNA analysis (Incorrect! This depends on the availability of expertise in the country and it's also important to note that the results should be suitable for proving identity in court. This being said, in this example, it is likely that an officer who has appropriate identification training could identify the ivory as originating from an elephant and that the pangolin is a pangolin, but possibly not which species of pangolin. So visual identification might be sufficient for species identification, with DNA analysis being a suitable alternative.)

Species Identification

Q: Which technique do you think will be most appropriate for geographic origin assignment?
- Visual identification (correct) (Correct! There are DNA analysis techniques available to determine where items come from for certain species, but remember: - determination of geographic origin may not be required to prove the case; - appropriate tests are often not available in the country of seizure (therefore samples may need to go to another lab); and - the tests would not normally prove the origin of the items, just their most likely source. This means that test results can inform investigations, but they are not suitable as prima facie evidence.)
- DNA analysis (Incorrect! There are DNA analysis techniques available to determine where items come from for certain species, but remember: - determination of geographic origin may not be required to prove the case; - appropriate tests are often not available in the country of seizure (therefore samples may need to go to another lab); and - the tests would not normally prove the origin of the items, just their most likely source. This means that test results can inform investigations, but they are not suitable as prima facie evidence.)

Conclusion

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In this module, we introduced the topic of forensic science and how it is applied to wildlife law enforcement. Understanding the common terminology and wildlife forensic analysis techniques forms a crucial foundation for ensuring that forensic evidence produced in court is admissible and enables the effective prosecution of wildlife crime. Now that we are familiar with these, we’ll explore visual and DNA analytical methods, and admitting, interpreting, and questioning wildlife forensic evidence in the next modules.

To complete this module, advance to the Summary page, and click Submit report.

For more information on the application of wildlife forensics, download the appendix here.

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